Byte, enero del 85

¡Bienvenidos a 1985! ¿Qué nos deparará el año?

Portada de la revista Byte de enero de 1985. El título es Through the hourglass. La ilustración es un reloj de arena lleno de todo tipo de dispositivos informáticos y electrónicos: chips, CDs, ordenadores...

De momento, una portada poco definida: ¿a través del reloj de arena? ¿No era a través del espejo? (Así entre nosotros, el número es un poco batiburrillo…)

Pero seguimos con aquello de «plus ça change». ¿Os suena este debate? ¿Lo creíais nuevo? ¿Le habríais puesto los cuarenta añazos que tiene? (Si es que no son más, claro.)

Editorial. AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS AND HUMAN RESPONSIBILITY The human desire to avoid responsibility for difficult decisions probably goes back to the dawn of time. In their brief period on this earth, computers have taken the blame for millions of human mistakes. Who hasn't heard a computer blamed for an error in billing or delivery? One typical case of blaming the computer occurred in a school system in which a computer handled scheduling of classes. On the first day of school, the most vocal complaints came from· students whose lunch hours had been assigned at 8:30. 9:30. 10:30 2:30 and 3:30. That's right—someone had forgotten to instruct the computer that lunch has to occur in the middle of the day. The school's new computer took the blame. Those who knew little about computers hated them more over this incident. Those in positions of authority found a versatile new scapegoat.

Resulta ser que en los debates a las anteriores elecciones en Estados Unidos (Reagan versus Walter Mondale) había salido el tema de delegar decisiones militares en máquinas… y el editor de Byte se sintió obligado a poner un cierto límite a la discusión y recordar que la responsabilidad, en cualquier caso, es humana.

Otra cosa «reciente»: el interés de la sociología y la psicología por el impacto de los ordenadores en las personas, como demuestra que en 1984 la socióloga Sherry Turkle ya escribiese sobre el tema en The Second Self, que recogen en la sección de libros de este mes:

Extracto de un artículo. THE SECOND SELF Reviewed by Anthony Townsend The press has focused lately on the novelty of computers. telling us what they are. and will be. capable of doing. We are told that we will see them with increasing frequency in everyday life. and that they will become a greater presence in our work and play. Rare, though, is the article or study of how computers are changing our definition of society. While sociological studies obviously take longer to research and compile than feature articles. they are no less important to the public's understanding of computers as a social force.

Temas que citan: la interacción entre niños y juguetes electrónicos y ordenadores, cómo nos cambia tener un ordenador, la posibilidad de que en el futuro las máquinas piensen, cómo la inteligencia artificial del futuro llevará a una nueva ciencia de la mente…

Bonus points: que no se diga que no tengo buena vista: el libro fue lo suficientemente importante como para que se reeditase 20 años más tarde, en 2005: aquí lo tenéis en Amazon.

Los que tengáis buena memoria recordaréis que en la entrevista con Woz del número anterior había un «Part I» en el título. Pues bien:

THE APPLE STORY PART 2: MORE HISTORY AND THE APPLE III An interview with Steve Wozniak Last month. Steve talked about his background, the evolution of the Apple I and II. and the early days of the company. In this part, the conversation switches to various aspects of the Apple II design, later personal history, and Steve's thoughts about the personal computing industry. SWEET·16 BYTE: One of the more interesting things in the Apple II ROM was your l6-bit pseudo machine called "Sweet-I6:· How did you come up with that? WOZNIAK : While I was writing my BASIC. I had been thinking about ways to save code. There were several places where I had to handle I6-bit pointers with an 8-bit processor, and that was pretty awkward. So I decided to write a little emulator and implement a 16-bit machine that could interpret pseudo codes and implement registers 0 to 15 in the 6502 base page. It ran about 30 times as slow as 6502 assembly language. but it saved tons of code every time I used it in a program. BYTE: Did you actually use it in your Integer BASIC?

Ya nos hemos acostumbrado a que las revistas de la época entraran mucho más en los detalles técnicos que las actuales, pero… ¿la implementación de soporte de 16 bits en el BASIC de una máquina de ocho bits? Wow. Y el nivel no baja en las preguntas que siguen. Más interesante se pone la cosa cuando le preguntan por el accidente de avión que tuvo en 1981 y las secuelas que le dejó, y que le llevó a dejar Apple durante un año para volver a la universidad y acabar la carrera (Woz volvería a dejar Apple, esta vez definitivamente, poco después de esta entrevista). Muy interesante, también, la separata sobre la hoja de cálculo (en aquel momento se hablaba de clones de VisiCalc, no de hojas de cálculo) para el Apple II en que Woz participó, y que ya en 1984 era una pieza de coleccionista. O el momento en que comenta que el IBM PC le sacaba más provecho a la RAM que el Apple II, o sus opiniones sobre el Apple III, el primer fracaso comercial de Apple. De toda la entrevista, en cualquier caso, me quedo con esta cita:

I think that when a new market evolves, like personal computers did, there’s a period of time when you’ve got to let the world go in all random directions, and eventually it will subside because it wants standardization. Then, once it’s obvious what the standards are, they should be heavily supported by the manufacturer. You can’t try to dictate a standard.

Unas cuantas páginas más adelante nos volvemos a encontrar con un tema de rabiosa actualidad en 1984:

EXPERT SYSTEMS — MYTH OR REALITY? The Department of Defense has identified artificial intelligence (Al) as one of the I0 most critical technologies to pursue in the remainder of this century. The Japanese have launched an ambitious fifth-generation computer project with Al's application, "expert systems", as one of its cornerstone technologies. The British and the French have responded with major national projects of their own. And the United States, currently the leader in this area, recently increased funding for basic research in Al. But what are expert systems, what is all the hoopla about, and is it justified? A SHORT HISTORY OF Al In the beginning there was the computer—and it was very difficult to program. Then John Backus et al.

Sí, el Departamento de Defensa de los Estados Unidos había declarado la inteligencia artificial una de las tecnologías más críticas, y ya había material como para escribir una «breve historia de la IA» que arrancaba con el lenguaje LISP.

En los ochenta, la divisoria que representaba el Atlántico sobre la informática personal parecía más difícil de cruzar que un océano. Y es por ello que me hace especial gracia encontrar en una revista yanqui un artículo sobre un ordenador europeo:

BYTE UK The Amstrad CPC 464 The home computer in the U.K. It's not easy for a U.K. citizen to write about home computers for an American magazine. We use the term to refer to an altogether different object on our side of the Atlantic. In the U.S.A., an Apple II is a home computer; the IBM PC in its smaller configurations is a home computer; the Macintosh is a home computer. Home computers use floppy disks for mass storage and perform useful functions like word processing and income tax preparation as well as playing games. In the U.K ., those computers would be considered rather expensive as business computers. let alone for home use. Home computers here typically cost less than £200 (about $250) and use cassette tape recorders for mass storage. We have various manufacturers of our own, some unheard of in the U.S.A. — Sinclair Spectrum, Acorn Electron, Oric Atmos, Memotech, Enterprise, and Amstrad. Others, like Newbrain, Jupiter, Lynx, and Dragon, are already defunct. Even when we do have machines in common (the Commodore 64). I suspect that the vast majority of U.S. users buy the disk drive, while the majority of U.K. users have only the cassette deck.

Como dice el artículo, el Commodore 64 era el único ordenador personal a ambos lados del charco (y mientras que en Estados Unidos lo normal era tener la disquetera, la mayoría de europeos nos contentábamos con el almacenamiento en casete, con lo que, básicamente, el mismo ordenador era muy diferente en un lado y en el otro). Y muchos estadounidenses debieron enterarse de lo que era un Amstrad (un 8 bits bastante razonable, por cierto, es lo que era) con esta pieza.

Siguiente tema (y vamos cerrando ya). ¿He dicho en algún momento que las revistas de la época entraban en materia hasta niveles espectaculares?

MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS The Fundamental Counting Principle Counting without enumerating You are at a racetrack trying to pick the triple for a race featuring 10 horses. That is, to win you must predict which horses will come in first, second, and third place, with the specific order significant. How many possible triples do you have to choose from? You wish to choose a fraternity name following the practice of using three Greek letters (e.g.. Alpha Beta Alpha), where repetition of letters. as in the example, is allowed. The Greek alphabet has 24 letters. How many possibilities are there? You want to count the number of divisors of 750. How can you do this without actually finding all the divisors first? What is the smallest army that can be arranged in rows and columns of consistent sizes in exactly 16 different ways? (To illustrate, an "army" of 14 people could be arranged in four configurations: 1 x 14, 2 x 7. 7 x 2, and 14 x 1.) These four ostensibly different problems can be handled without recourse to enumeration (meaning lengthy listing of all possibilities). The branch of mathematics dedicated to counting without enumerating is called combinatorics. The most basic theorem of combinatorics, known as the fundamental counting principle. can be stated this way: If a first thing can be done in m ways and a second thing in n ways, then the number of ways in which you could do both things (first one of the m followed by one of the n) is m times n, or m·n. As an example, suppose you wish to travel from A to B and then from B to C, as in figure I (without retracing any path or going in the wrong direction). Since you can go two ways from A to B and three ways from B to C, you have 2 x 3 = 6 ways to go from A to C. As a check by direct enumeration, suppose you call the A to B paths u and v, and the B to C paths w, x. and y. Then the possible paths from A to C are...

Dentro de un mes o dos me toca dar una clase de introducción a la combinatoria en una asignatura de primero de una ingeniería… y va a ser más o menos igual de intensa que esta pieza de «recreaciones matemáticas» de una revista generalista…

Y para cerrar: qué envidia un tiempo en el que no hacían falta RGPDs para que los editores tuvieran algún momento de lucidez ética, al menos de vez en cuando…

a message to our subscribers From time to time we make the BYTE subscriber list available to other companies who wish to send our subscribers material about their products. We take great care to screen these companies, choosing only those who are reputable, and whose products, services, or information we feel would be of interest to you. Direct mail is an efficient medium for presenting the latest personal computer goods and services to our subscribers. Many BYTE subscribers appreciate this controlled use of our mailing list and look forward to finding information of interest to them in the mail. Used are our subscribers' names and addresses only (no other information we may have is ever given). While we believe the distribution of this information is of benefit to our subscribers, we firmly respect the wishes of any subscriber who does not want to receive such promotional literature. Should you wish to restrict the use of your name, simply send your request to the following address. BYTE Publications Inc. Attn : Circulation Department, 70 Main St., Peterborough, NH 03458

El mes que viene, más. (O no, quién sabe.) Y como siempre, si os queréis ir a la fuente, https://vintageapple.org/byte/.

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